2026 Vol. 18 №2

The study outlines the semantics of verification and examines its interaction with de re ascriptions. Verification sentences are analysed as having a layered structure comprising two unary operators, VER and ACT, represented as VER(ACT(p)). The operator VER establishes a link to a verification event in which agent X has established the truth of p in the actual world, while ACT renders the proposition pre-verified, that is, open to verification or falsifica­tion. Standard accounts of the de re versus de dicto distinction maintain that, in contexts of belief and desire, de re attitudes involve ontological commitments to the existence of objects in the actual world. Within a Davidsonian framework, events are treated as spatiotemporal par­ticulars. Accordingly, sentences of the type VER(ACT(p)), which posit the existence of verifi­cation events in the actual world, pattern with de re constructions. On this basis, lexical markers of VER, such as English ‘indeed’, ‘really’, ‘in fact’, and Russian ‘dejstvitel’no’, ‘na samom dele’, may be analysed as de re modal elements conveying a meaning of epistemic ne­cessity. A distinct class of discourse markers includes English ‘certainly’ and ‘naturally’, and Russian ‘razumeetsja’ and ‘estestvenno’, which introduce the operator AFF and signal that the speaker’s expectations are fulfilled. These two classes of operators display different seman­tic properties: markers of certainty do not entail that p is verified de re, whereas VER markers do not encode speaker certainty. The operator AFF may take scope over VER, yielding the configuration AFF(VER(ACT(p))), which is well-formed, whereas the inverse order VER(AFF(ACT(p))) is ill-formed. The proposed analysis accounts for two empirical generali­sations. First, VER is invariably realised overtly at the phonetic level. Second, counterfactual constructions require components that are pre-verified or verified and exclude anti-veridical markers in the protasis. This constraint supports the view that, within the metaphysics im­plicit in natural language, counterfactual worlds are treated as real and are capable of hosting verification events.

The Church Fathers, along with numerous ecclesiastical authors and theologians, con­sistently addressed the problem of interpreting the allegories of divine revelation and the di­vinely inspired narratives of the mysteries of divine wisdom contained in Holy Scripture. In their efforts to understand and explain scriptural narration, they identified fundamental in­terpretative patterns, formulated general principles and methods of exegesis, and, in many cases, developed comprehensive theories and coherent hermeneutical frameworks. Within the broader practice and cultural heritage of human oral and written linguistic activity, the prob­lem of expressing the truth of being through either literal or allegorical meaning is universal and extends beyond divine realities and the sacred sphere alone. Holy Scripture, by revealing the history and meaning of divine creation, providence, and eternal salvation, conveys the truth of existence as a whole and of human spiritual life in particular. St. Augustine of Hippo, guided by his commitment to developing both the theory and practice of understanding and interpreting the allegories of Holy Scripture, turns to the seven rules of interpretation formu­lated by Tyconius the African. Through a critical and scholarly re-examination of the mystical significance of Tyconius’s seven rules, Augustine offers a refined reinterpretation of their meaning and application to the allegories of Scripture, incorporating them into his own her­meneutical conception.

This article examines the functioning of rare and unique vocabulary in the oldest Rus­sian manuscript of The Ladder by St. John Climacus, created in the mid-twelfth century. The aim of the study is to introduce new material into scholarly circulation in the fields of histori­cal lexicology and historical lexicography. The principal research method employed is lin­guotextual analysis.

By comparing the lexical composition of the manuscript with the evidence provided by Old Church Slavonic dictionaries and historical dictionaries of the Russian language, the author identified 391 lexemes that had not previously been recorded in historical lexicogra­phy. The manuscript’s vocabulary was also compared with that of other manuscripts of the Preslav translation dating from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. This comparison made it possible to distinguish lexemes common to all manuscripts (226), lexemes replaced in South Slavic versions (84), lexemes replaced in East Slavic versions (55), and lexemes attes­ted only in the oldest manuscript (26). Examples from each of these groups are presented in the form of dictionary entries, including definitions of meaning, extended contextual evidence, indications of possible scribal errors, and instances of lexical variation. The study also identi­fies Byzantine parallels to Old Russian lexemes and discusses cases of lexical homonymy. Particular emphasis is placed on the importance of considering extralinguistic factors in the analysis of Old Russian texts, especially the manuscript tradition and the historical circum­stances of a text’s creation.

The article demonstrates the significance of lexical analysis of early Slavic texts from dif­ferent chronological periods and geographical areas for the development of a new field of re­search concerned with the phenomenon of medieval ‘collective church memory’.

The potentially inexhaustible semantic potential of the word, reflected in the full range of its conventional meanings and individual authorial reinterpretations as manifested in literary discourse, has repeatedly attracted philological attention. One such polycode sign, distin­guished by a broad semantic spectrum and complex syntagmatic behaviour, is the word ‘or­gan’. This article analyses the literal and figurative uses, as well as the metaphorical trans­formations, of the lexeme ‘organ’ in Russian literature over approximately one and a half cen­turies of its development. The main material for linguapoetic analysis consists of literary con­texts containing the lexeme ‘organ’, recorded in the National Corpus of the Russian Language and dating from the 18th century to the 20th century. The study aims to identify the main tendencies in the figurative and symbolic use of the word ‘organ’, as well as its individual authorial reinterpretation by poets representing successive literary movements, including the Baroque, Classicism, Sentimentalism, and Romanticism. Particular attention is paid to the process by which this long-assimilated Greek borrowing was integrated into lyric poetry and Russian culture as a whole. The analysis leads to the following conclusions. First, in the poet­ry of the Baroque, Classicist, and Romantic periods, the lexeme ‘organ’ is rarely used in its direct meaning of ‘musical instrument’, appearing mainly in translations and adaptations. In twentieth-century poetry, by contrast, the meaning ‘wind keyboard instrument’ becomes clearly dominant, including in similes, while personifying metaphorical transfers also emerge, such as ‘organ-man’. Second, figurative and symbolic meanings, for example, in metaphorical expressions such as ‘organ of the soul’ or ‘organ of the heart’, become especially productive during the Golden Age, when figurative contexts predominate and reveal the broadest syn­tagmatic and functional-semantic possibilities of the lexeme organ. These uses enrich its dic­tionary meaning through multiple semantic extensions and transform its usual valency pat­terns. Third, the frequency of the lexeme ‘organ’ in Russian poetry correlates closely with the process of assimilation of Western European organ music in Russia, which was particularly intensive during the Baroque, Romantic, and Silver Age periods. Meanings derived from the Psalms and familiar within the Orthodox tradition are adapted and become closely inter­twined with ‘foreign’ themes within the semiosphere of Russian culture.

The article presents a comparative study of xenopointers, understood as pragmatic mark­ers of reported or attributed speech, across contemporary Slavic languages. These units con­stitute an important part of discourse organisation, as they encode speakers’ metacommunica­tive reflection and strategies for representing an external or distanced voice. While individual markers have been extensively described within specific linguistic traditions, their cross-Slavic typological analysis remains insufficiently systematised. The study aims to identify and classify lexical xenopointers in major Slavic languages and to establish their functional and pragmatic correspondences. The research is based on a corpus-driven discourse approach that combines quantitative analysis of parallel and monolingual corpora with qualitative ex­amination of contextual usage. Special attention is given to translated literary texts, which provide a suitable basis for multilingual comparison and for tracing translation strategies involving pragmatic markers. The analysis demonstrates that lexical xenopointers are attested in all examined Slavic languages, including those in which evidentiality is primarily ex­pressed through grammatical means. The study reveals both shared typological patterns and language-specific differences in the etymology, distribution, and pragmatic scope of these markers, as well as considerable variability in their translational equivalents. The findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the interaction between evidentiality, quota­tivity, and epistemic modality in discourse and offer new empirical insights for corpus prag­matics and cross-linguistic research.

The article investigates pragmatic meanings of procedural metacommunicative com­ments in contemporary Russian and the methods of their objective explication in linguistic description. The focus is on the constructions ‘inache govorja’ (Eng. in other words), ‘prosh­che govorja’ (Eng. simply put), and ‘drugimi slovami’ (Eng. to put it differently), which func­tion as markers of alternative nomination or reformulation in an utterance. The relevance of the study lies in the fact that in most linguistic research, the interpretation of the pragmatic func­tion of such units is based primarily on the researcher’s intuition, which makes the re­sulting conclusions largely subjective. The article proposes an experimental approach that makes it possible to compare linguistic interpretation with native speakers’ perceptions. The experiment was conducted using data from the Russian National Corpus. Participants were asked to evaluate the acceptability of utterances containing different metacommunicative comments, the possibility of their mutual substitution in specific contexts, and the functions these comments perform within the utterance. The results of the experiment show that the metacommunicative constructions under consideration are not perceived by native speakers as fully equivalent and differ in their degree of contextual acceptability. The findings demon­strate that the metacommunicative comment ‘inache govorja’ is semantically and pragmati­cally closer to the construction ‘drugimi slovami’, whereas ‘proshche govorja’ has a narrower semantic scope and a more clearly defined pragmatic meaning. In addition, variability in the functional interpretation of metacommunicative comments is revealed, which confirms the complex and context-dependent nature of their pragmatic meaning. The results demonstrate the necessity of employing experimental methods in the description of metacommunication and refine our understanding of the functional differentiation of procedural metacommunica­tive devices.

The consolidated Dictionary of the language of Russian Poetry (20th century) is based on a corpus of texts by ten major poets of the Silver Age, from Innokenty Annensky to Marina Tsvetaeva. The dictionary combines the features of a complete concordance with those of a differential explanatory dictionary. Its distinctive characteristic is the exhaustive scope of its lexical coverage: all units function as headwords, including function words. The functioning of discourse words in poetic language has attracted considerable attention in con­temporary scholarship. This article examines the particle ‘khot’ (‘even’), described in the dic­tionary entry (‘KHOT’) in this dictionary. In explanatory and specialised dictionaries, as well as in scholar­ly literature, ‘khot’ is classified as a particle homonymous with the conjunction ‘khot’/khotya’ (‘although’, ‘even if’). In the poetic dictionary, however, ‘khot’ / khotya’, both as a conjunction and as a particle in its different meanings, is not divided into separate homon­ymous entries but is presented within a single dictionary entry, with variant forms taken into account. This group of units is surrounded by a lexical nest formed by the verb ‘khotet’ (‘to want’), and the etymological connection between ‘khot’ / khotya’ and this nest is further em­phasised by the presence of the homonymous gerund form ‘khot’. A systematic analysis of dictionary exam­ples containing the particle ‘khot’ reveals the specific features of its poetic functioning. This specificity is manifested in the increased frequency of particular collocations and construc­tions involving this word, its recurrence in poetic contexts, its use both in the author’s voice and in the speech of literary characters, and its contribution to the formation of a moderately lowered stylistic colouring of poetry.

The paper presents a comparative analysis of the inferential discourse marker Rus. ‘sledovatel’no’ (Eng. therefore) in poetic and judicial discourses. The relevance of the study lies in the insufficient attention paid to the pragmatic dimension of discourse markers in insti­tutional and literary communication. The research aims to identify discourse-specific patterns of functional change in inferential markers operating under opposing communicative orienta­tions: linguistic creativity in poetry and normative regulation in judicial discourse. The data comprise corpora of poetic and judicial texts. The methodology combines corpus-based dis­course analysis with pragmatic and speech act theory. In poetic discourse, inferential markers may lose their function of logical inference and be reinterpreted as means of metalinguistic reflection and disruption of logical-syntactic relations. In judicial discourse, by contrast, in­ferential markers are integrated into procedural formulas and perform a declarative illocu­tionary function, institutionally fixing decisions and presenting them as logically inevitable. The study reveals a discourse-driven asymmetry in the pragmatic effects of inferential dis­course markers, demonstrating their linguo-creative potential in poetry and their manipula­tive as well as regulatory functions in judicial communication.