2025 Issue №2

The system of categories in legal science requires constant reflection, clarification, and updating. Legal punishment, being one of the most significant general theoretical legal categories, remains among the least studied today. The aim of the present study is to conceptualize the most important general theoretical characteristics of punishment, including its main features, its interaction with related legal categories, and current developmental trends. The author attempts to formulate provisions that may serve as a starting point for developing a general theory of legal punishments. In the course of the study, in addition to general scientific methods, special legal research techniques were employed, including the formal-legal, systemic-legal, and legal modeling methods, which, together with the analysis of legislative norms and decisions of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, allowed the research objective to be achieved. A conclusionis drawn on the necessity of a dual understanding of punishment as a phenomenon of both objective and subjective law, and the substantive and functional connections between punishment, legal responsibility, and retribution are identified. A model of the punishment system is examined, and general theoretical and sector specific problems of its implementation in legal practice are outlined. Finally, the author proposes concrete directions for the future development of the theory of legal punishments and methodological guidelines for distinguishing punishments from other forms of state coercion. 

Malicious software and viral phishing attacks have remained for several consecutive years among the most effective tools for infiltrating information infrastructure. In the vast majority of cases, the exploitation of malicious software is associated with gaining access to systems containing confidential information and its theft, which constitutes the least costly method for delivering and executing malicious code on a recipient’s device. Given that the increase in unlawful acts related to the creation, use, and distribution of malicious computer programs is a significant factor in the self-reproduction of cybercrime, it is reasonable to explore the possibilities for optimizing their investigation process, in particular by examining the elements that comprise their forensic profile. The object of the study is the legal relationships arising in the investigation of crimes in the field of computer information associated with the creation, use, and distribution of malicious computer programs. The main goal is to reveal the content of the elements of the forensic profile of these offenses, taking into account the current development of information technologies and trends in the exploitation of malicious software. The theoretical significance of the study lies in the description of the forensic profile of the examined crimes, which may serve as the basis for forming their informational model (digital twins), and this constitutes the conceptual scientific novelty. The applied value of typical forensic profiles of crimes in the field of computer information lies in their potential use for the development of specific forensic investigation techniques, the creation of new forensic records based on digital evidence databases, and the design of specialized software in the form of decision support systems used, for example, in the formulation of investigative hypotheses and planning of investigations.

The study examines current issues arising in the course of investigating crimes related to the acquisition of information contained in electronic communications. The research includes an analysis of investigative practices formed in the execution of the procedural action “seizure
of electronic messages in organizations engaged in data transmission over communication networks.” Tactical and organizational problems encountered during investigative actions involving the seizure of electronic messages in organizations that provide their transmission via information and communication networks are identified. An analysis is conducted on the situational conditionality of conducting investigative actions related to the seizure of electronic messages, as well as the challenges faced in this process. The objective of the scientific study is to develop scientifically grounded recommendations for conducting investigative actions related to the seizure of information contained in electronic messages. The study draws on the works of domestic experts in the field of forensics, focusing on the use of information technologies in crime investigations; normative legal acts regulating the procedures for seizing electronic messages and other communications transmitted over telecommunications networks. The research employed methods of analysis, systematization, and generalization of information. As a result of the study, deficiencies in the procedures for conducting the specified investigative actions were identified, and advantages were noted. Methodological recommen
dations are provided regarding the tactics and methods of conducting investigative actions related to the seizure of electronic and other communications transmitted over telecommunications networks. An algorithm was developed containing a set of investigative measures aimed at establishing the most complete and objective body of electronic evidence in the investigation of various types of crimes.

The article analyzes the phenomenon of football in the German Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz between 1940 and 1945. Auschwitz was by no means the only concentration camp where football matches and even entire tournaments were held—other camps such as Buchenwald, Theresienstadt, and Gross-Rosen had their own championships. The duality of the concept of "sport" as interpreted by the camp administration is examined: for the Nazis, sport included not only competitions but also physical abuse of prisoners, which some researchers refer to as "quasi-sport." The testimonies of surviving prisoners about football matches organized by the SS in Auschwitz are cited, including a detailed analysis of the most well-known game played in 1944 between the Nazis and members of the Sonderkommando. This article attempts to explore various aspects of football in Auschwitz based on sources of personal origin, aiming to uncover as much evidence as possible about football matches held in the concentration camp, as well as to reconstruct the names of their participants. The study of such a topic as football in Auschwitz confirms that even under the most extreme conditions— when life stood on the brink of annihilation—there existed a drive for self-expression and the preservation of human nature. For the prisoners, football held symbolic meaning—it was not only an attempt to escape from the brutal reality but also a kind of refuge, a space where they could, even if only briefly, feel free.

An attempt is made to examine the course of military operations in East Prussia from autumn 1944 to spring 1945 through the prism of publications by war correspondents in the central Soviet newspapers: Pravda, Izvestia, Krasnaya Zvezda, and Stalinsky Sokol. Frontline correspondents, being embedded within the active army, were chroniclers of the war, eyewitnesses to the events unfolding on the territory of the German province. These “soldiers of the word” contributed to maintaining the morale of Soviet troops, popularizing the combat experience of Red Army units, and showcasing examples of heroism among soldiers and officers. While fulfilling the ideological tasks assigned by the Soviet authorities and constrained by strict censorship, the war correspondents simultaneously infused their essays and reports with their personal war experiences, leaving for posterity an invaluable historical source. An analysis of the war journalists’ correspondence enables the identification of how perceptions were formed regarding the objectives set for the Soviet troops during the Gumbinnen and East Prussian offensive operations of the Red Army, the periodization of military actions, the role of specific branches of the armed forces, as well as the relationships between the advancing units and the local population. At the same time, this is also the history of the frontline correspondents themselves, who accompanied the active army throughout East Prussia.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the 1980 U. S. presidential election campaign. Special attention is given to the historical conditions that influenced the election outcome, against which the partisan political struggle unfolded. Each U. S. presidential campaign is characterized by its unique features and unpredictability. The final result is not always possible to determine, as numerous factors influence both the voters and the decision of the Electoral College. However, based on a comprehensive analysis of the domestic and foreign policy priorities of various electoral groups, an overall assessment of historical conditions, and a comparison of the candidates’ views and platforms, grounds emerge to identify the likely winner. The intense partisan political struggle during the 1980 presidential campaign reflected a deep division within the country and was largely connected to shifts in American voter sentiment. There is a need for a deeper and more objective analysis of that period to understand the processes occurring within American society that led to the defeat of Democrat Jimmy Carter, secured the victory of the far-right Republican Ronald Reagan, and strengthened the ideology of neoconservatism in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Considering advancements in historical and political sciences and employing historical-comparative and historical-genetic methods, this analysis is undertaken in the present study.

Based on the analysis of the data from a mass survey of the population of the Kaliningrad region conducted in 2023, a preliminary hypothesis is proposed regarding the specifics of the regional variant of the “pantheon of heroes” — an important structural element of the cultural memory of Kaliningrad residents. Peter the Great (across all age groups), Joseph Stalin, and Catherine II possess the greatest potential as “symbols of Russia,” whose activities respondents generally evaluate positively. At the same time, regarding Joseph Stalin and Vladimir Lenin as historical figures, a conflict potential is revealed in the historical memory of Russian society concerning their activities and era. Immanuel Kant is most frequently associated with the regional past, while figures from national history whose names are reflected in local toponymy or connected to the formation of the region are much less so. A distinctive feature of the regional variant of cultural memory is the lower popularity of outstanding representatives of Russian culture compared to the “statesmen.”

Trust in government authorities is a key aspect influencing the stability, efficiency, and sustainability of state governance. At the present stage, the topic of trust in public authorities in Russia has gained additional relevance due to significant socio-economic and political changes caused by the extreme instability of the international situation. Under these new conditions, trust in government authorities serves as a fundamental element for the successful functioning of the state. This article focuses on the youth of the Kaliningrad region. The aim of the study is to identify the socio-economic factors influencing the trust of the region’s youth in government authorities. The results of statistical analysis of empirical data obtained from a mass survey (n=397) demonstrated that the origin of trust in authorities is conditioned by the assessment of their effectiveness. It was found that higher levels of trust are shown by youth who highly evaluate the situation regarding interpersonal trust in Russia and who have close relatives with similar trust patterns. It was also revealed that female youth living outside the regional center tend to have greater trust in state institutions. At the same time, there is virtually no correlation between youth trust and their educational level or material status.

The article analyzes the formation of a new world order that will change the entire modern system of international relations. Although its defining feature remains uncertainty, the majority of experts believe the emerging order will be polycentric, more equitable, and less stable than the current political system. At the current stage of societal development, a confrontation is unfolding between the "collective West" and the anti-colonial movement represented by organizations such as the SCO and BRICS+. One of the factors contributing to changes in global politics is the Ukrainian crisis, which is gradually shifting from a stage of escalation to one of stabilization. This is a megatrend of modern global politics, against the backdrop of which all regions of the world, interregional relationships, and the geopolitical influence on specific regional actors are undergoing transformation. One such region is Central Asia. In this article, the region is viewed primarily as a community of five former Soviet republics that have become independent states. However, it is important to recognize that Central Asia also encompasses Afghanistan, Mongolia, and parts of India, China, and Russia, which significantly broadens the concept of the region and increases its geopolitical significance. Russia and Central Asia are historically connected; the region was once part of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. Today, these states are the Russian Federation’s closest neighbors, forming a unified security belt. Over time, they have experienced various phases of mutual interaction, and their cooperation is currently among the most productive in the post-Soviet era. Russian influence remains a priority in Central Asia, though China's role in the region is also substantial. While the Russian Federation leads in matters of security and military-technical cooperation, China dominates in the economic sphere. The aim of this study is to examine the role of Russia and the Central Asian states in the process of forming a new world order. The methodological foundation of the study includes theories of functional and complex conflict. These theories offer analytical tools to explore the formation and evolution of contemporary global conflicts. Additionally, methods of normative legal analysis and comparative analysis were employed. The results of the study indicate that relations between Russia and the Central Asian countries are currently characterized by two main trends: cooperation and conflict. Most conflicts are functional in nature and are subject to political resolution. The conclusions of the study suggest that the relationship between Russia and the Central Asian countries contributes to the development of a polycentric world. Researchers focusing on this region should analyze the multi-vector nature of the foreign policies pursued by Central Asian states and account for the ambiguous influence exerted by the United States, China, and Turkey in the region.

Local authorities are the closest level of government to the population, and it is at the municipal level that political and administrative decisions are made which directly affect the interests of every citizen. This underlines the importance of digitalizing the activities of local self-government bodies. The development of internet technologies creates new tools for citizen participation in municipal politics. The distinctive features of digital forms of political participation in the activities of local self-government bodies allow them to be regarded as an independent type of civic political engagement. At the same time, the problems of informational inequality among municipalities and technical limitations in the use of internet technologies remain relevant. Among the digital forms of citizen participation in the work of local selfgovernment bodies, one can identify crowdsourcing platforms for municipal referendums, municipal online elections, services for legislative initiatives and online appeals to municipal authorities, online meetings and citizen gatherings, as well as voting on budget planning projects.