Search
Submit an article RU
Kantian Journal

2025 Vol. 44. №3

Back to the list Download the article
ENG
Сохранить XML для: JATS (вып.)
RUS
Сохранить XML для: JATS (вып.)
Babich B.

Kant’s Philosophy of Chemistry and Nietzsche’s Cosmology: On the Material Hermeneutics of Alchemy and Cinnabar. Part I

DOI
10.5922/0207-6918-2025-3-2
Pages
43-80
Kant Nietzsche cosmology alchemy chymistry spagyric hermeneutic philosophy of science historiography of science

Abstract

By reading Kant on chemistry as a science, including his definition of science as such, this essay reviews Kant and the history of chemistry. Kant’s Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens is read in terms of contemporary axiomatic systems, via the astrophysicist Rudolf Kurth’s 1956 account, along with Nietzsche’s account of logic and causality. Nietzsche cites Kant’s theory in the context of a sustained discussion of Anaxagoras’ pre-Platonic cosmology. The paper includes reflections on alchemy, the history and historiography of chemistry, and recent contributions to the philosophy of chemistry. Since the foundations of chemistry are essentially non-mathematical, it cannot, following Kant, fully meet the criteria of a ‘science’. The same argument holds for alchemy (‘chymistry’ or spagyric), which is likewise not regarded as a science. Hermeneutic history and philosophy of science are useful, not only for developing an understanding of Kant’s conception of chemistry as a science, but also of his invocation of Stahl’s spagyric ‘art’, and his example of the mutable properties of a specific ore of mercury, Zinnober or cinnabar (HgS). A significant property of cinnabar (HgS) in this regard is that it changes colour, turning from red to black, depending on exposure to light. This can be interpreted as a metaphor illustrating problems of metamorphosis, and calling into question the widespread application of chemical principles. Together with his criticism of chemistry, Kant’s philosophical reflections open up possibilities for further research into concepts that first arose with alchemy.

Reference

Abel, G., 1984. Nietzsche: Die Dynamik der Willen zur Macht und die ewige Wiederkehr. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Agassi, J., 1971. Kant’s Program. Synthese, 23(1), pp. 18-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00414142.

Babich, B., 1994. Nietzsche’s Philosophy of Science: Reflecting Science on the Ground of Art and Life. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Babich, B., 2008. Un problema con cuernos… el problema de la sciencia misma. La crítica de Nietzsche a la razón científica. Estudios Nietzsche. Nietzsche y la ciencia, 8, pp. 13-53.

Babich, B., 2010a. Early Continental Philosophy of Science. In: K. Ansell-Pearson and A. D. Schrift, 2010. The History of Continental Philosophy, Volume 3: The New Century: Bergsonism, Phenomenology and Responses to Modern Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 264-286.

Babich, B., 2010b. Nietzsches hermeneutischen, phänomenologische Wissenschaftsphilosophie, Unzeitgemäße Betrachtungen zu Altphilologie und Physiologie. In: G. Abel, H. Heit and M. Brusotti, eds., Nietzsches Wissenschaftsphilosophie. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 291-314. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110259384.291.

Babich, B., 2010c. Towards a Critical Philosophy of Science: Continental Beginnings and Bugbears, Whigs, and Waterbears. International Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 24(4), pp. 343-391. https://doi.org/10.1080/02698595.2010.543349.

Babich, B., 2014. On Schrödinger and Nietzsche: Eternal Return and the Moment. In: C. K. Chapple, ed. 2014. Antonio T. de Nicolas: Poet of Eternal Return. Ahmedabad: Sriyogi Publications & Ntyalanda International, pp. 157-206.

Babich, B., 2015. Nietzsche’s Antichrist: The Birth of Modern Science out of the Spirit of Religion. In: M. Enders and H. Zaborowski, eds., Jahrbuch für Religionsphilosophie, 13 (2014). Freiburg i. Briesgau: Alber, pp. 134-154.

Babich, B., 2016. Nietzsche’s Critique: Reading Kant’s Critical Philosophy. In: M. Conard, ed. 2016. Nietzsche and the Philosophers. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 169-192.

Babich, B., 2019. Reading David Hume’s “Of the Standard of Taste”. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Babich, B., 2020a. Material Hermeneutics and Heelan’s Philosophy of Technoscience. AI & Society, 38, pp. 2177-2188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-020-00963-7.

Babich, B., 2020b. Nietzsches Lebensontologie: Negative Ontologie. In: J. Urbich and J. Zimmer, eds. 2020. Handbuch Ontologie. Frankfurt am Main: Metzler, pp. 155-164.

Babich, B., 2021a. On the ‘Very Idea of a Philosophy of Science’: Chemistry and Cosmology in Nietzsche and Kant. Axiomathes. Special Issue Epistemologia, 31, pp. 703-726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10516-021-09599-8.

Babich, B., 2021b. Nietzsches Plastik. Ästhetische Phänomenologie im Spiegel des Lebens. Oxford & Berlin: Peter Lang.

Babich, B., 2022a. Dionysian Redemption, Ariadne’s Death, Asses’s Ears — and Nietzsche’s Debts. New Nietzsche Studies, 11(3-4), pp. 99-132. https://doi.org/10.5840/newnietzsche2021/2022113/45

Babich, B., 2022b. L’atmosphère, le parfum et la politique de l’utopie: Lucien, Nietzsche, et Illich. Diogène. Revue internationale des sciences humaines, 273-274(1), pp. 124-146. https://doi.org/10.3917/dio.273.0124.

Babich, B., 2023. Nietzsche and AI: On ChatGPT and the Psychology of Illusion. Philosophical Salon: Los Angeles Review of Books, 19 June 2023. Available at: <https://thephilosophicalsalon.com/nietzsche-and-ai-on-chatgpt-and-the-psychology-of-illusion/> (Accessed 23.08.2025).

Babich, B., 2025a. Gadamer and Nietzsche on the Question of Science: ‘The Victory of Scientific Method Over Science’. In: F. Bey, ed. 2025. Hans-Georg Gada­mer. Cuestiones abiertas / Open Questions. Quito: filosófica, pp. 177-208. Available at: <https://filosoficaeditorial.fundacionfilosofica.com/sdm_downloads/hans-georg-gadamer/&gt; (Accessed 23.08.2025).

Babich, B., 2025b. Truth, Lie and Nietzsche’s ‘Hinzugedichtetes’: Nietzsche and AI. In: H. Bajohr, ed. 2025. Thinking with AI. London: Open Humanities Press, pp. 147-181.

Babich, B. and Cohen, R. S., 1999a. Nietzsche, Epistemology and Philosophy of Science: Nietzsche and the Sciences II. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Babich, B. and Cohen, R. S., 1999b. Nietzsche, Theories of Knowledge and Critical Theory: Nietzsche and the Sciences I. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Baumgartner, J., 2005. Kant und Nietzsche über das Erkenntnissubjekt. Zwei Übereinstimmungen und ein Gegensatz. In: B. Himmelmann, ed. 2005. Kant und Nietzsche in Widerstreit. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 69-77.

Bensaude-Vincent, B., 2009. A Historical Perspective on Science and Its ‘Others’. Isis, 100(2), pp. 359-368. https://doi.org/10.1086/599547.

Berg, H. van den, 2011. Kant’s Conception of Proper Science. Synthese, 183(1), pp. 7-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-009-9665-y.

Boelderl, A. R., 1995. Alchimie, Postmoderne und der arme Hölderlin. Drei Studien zur philosophische Hermetik. Wien: Passagen.

Brobjer, T. and Moore, G., eds. 2004. Nietzsche and Science. New York: Routledge.

Brock, W. H., 2000. The Chemical Tree: A History of Chemistry. New York: W. W. Norton and Co.

Buchdahl, G., 1992. Kant and the Dynamics of Reason. Oxford: Blackwell.

Carrier, M., 2000. Kant’s Theory of Matter and his Views on Chemistry. In: E. Watkins, ed. 2000. Kant and the Sciences. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 205-230.

Cat, J. and Best, N. W., 2023. Atomic Number and Isotopy before Nuclear Structure: Multiple Standards and Evolving Collaboration of Chemistry and Physics. Foundations of Chemistry, 25, pp. 67-99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10698-022-09450-x.

Chang, K. -M., 2015. Phlogiston and Chemical Principles: The Development and Formulation of Georg Ernst Stahl’s Principle of Inflammability. In: K. Hunger Parshall, M. T. Walton and B. T. Moran, eds. 2015. Bridging Traditions: Alchemy, Chemistry, and Paracelsian Practices in the Early Modern Era. State College: Penn State University Press, pp. 101-130.

Clark, D. L., 2001. Kant’s Aliens: The “Anthropology” and Its Others. CR: The New Centennial Review, 1(2), pp. 201-289. https://doi.org/10.1353/ncr.2003.0052.

Dahlstrom, D., 2019/2020. Babette Babich on the ‘Very Idea of the Philosophy of Science’. New Nietzsche Studies, 11 (1-2), pp. 113-119. https://doi.org/10.5840/newnietzsche2019/2020111/29

Dahms, H. F., 2019. Ignoring Goethe’s Faust: A Critical-Theoretical Perspective on American Ideology. Fast Capitalism. 16(2), pp. 9-30. https://doi.org/10.32855/fcapital.201902.002.

Dobbs, B. J. T., 1975. The Foundations of Newton’s Alchemy: or, ‘The Hunting of the Greene Lyon.’ Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Doyle, T., 2012. The Kantian Background to Nietzsche’s Views on Causality. Journal of Nietzsche Studies, 43(1), pp. 44-56. https://doi.org/10.5325/jnietstud.43.1.0044.

Dressen, A., 2017. From Dante to Landino: Botticelli’s Calumny of Apelles and its Sources. Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz, 59(3), pp. 324-339. https://doi.org/10.11588/mkhi.2017.3.81776

Eddy, M. D., Mauskopf, S. H. and Newman, W. R., 2014. An Introduction to Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World. Osiris, 29(1), pp. 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1086/678110.

Eliade, M., 1978. The Forge and the Crucible: The Origins and Structures of Alchemy. Translated by S. Corrin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Faye, J., 2014. What Can Philosophy of Science Learn from Hermeneutics and What Can Hermeneutics Learn from Philosophy of Science. With an Excursus on Botticelli. In: B. Babich and D. Ginev, eds. 2014. The Multidimensionality of Hermeneutic Phenomenology. Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 267-281. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01707-5_15.

Feloj, S., 2011. Metaphor and Boundary. Lebenswelt: Aesthetics and Philosophy of Experience, 1, pp. 31-46. https://doi.org/10.13130/2240-9599/1636.

Ferrini, C., 2013. The Land of Truth of the Understanding and the Threatening Waters of Reason: Maritime Sources for a Kantian Metaphor. Esercizi Filosofici, 8(2), pp. 53-70. Available at: <https://sites.units.it//eserfilo/art813/ferrini813.pdf&gt; (Accessed 23.08.2025).

Feyerabend, P., 1975. Against Method. London: Verso.

Feyerabend, P., 1984. Wissenschaft als Kunst. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.

Franz, M. -L. van, 1979. Alchemical Active Imagination. Zürich: Spring Publications.

Friedman, M., 1992. Kant and the Exact Sciences. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Friedman, M., 2012. Newton and Kant: Quantity of Matter in the Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. Southern Journal of Philosophy, 50(3), pp. 482-503. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-6962.2012.00126.x.

Gaukroger, S., 2016. Kant and the Nature of Matter: Mechanics, Chemistry, and the Life Sciences. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 58, pp. 108-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2016.03.007.

Gentili, C., 2013. Kant, Nietzsche und die ‘Philosophie des Als-Ob’. In: R. Reschke, ed. 2013. Wirklich. Wirklichkeit. Wirklichkeiten. Nietzsche über ‘wahre’ und ‘scheinbare’ Welten. Berlin: Akademia, pp. 103-116.

Giglioni, G., 2014a. The Horror of Bruno’s Magic: Frances Yates Gives a Lecture at The Warburg Institute (1952). Bruniana & Campanelliana, 20(2), pp. 477-497.

Giglioni, G., 2014b. Who Is Afraid of Frances Yates? ‘Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition’ (1964) Fifty Years Later. Bruniana & Campanelliana, 20(2), pp. 421-432.

Gottschlich, M., 2015. The Necessity and Limits of Kant’s Transcendental Logic, With Reference to Nietzsche and Hegel. The Review of Metaphysics, 69(2), pp. 287-315.

Harré, R., 2005. Chemical Kinds and Essences Revisited. Foundations of Chemistry, 7, pp. 7-30. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:FOCH.0000042885.93975.69.

Heelan, P. A., 2002. Afterword: The Hermeneutics of Natural Science. In: B. Babich, ed. 2002. Hermeneutic Philosophy of Science, Van Gogh’s Eyes, and God. Dordrecht: Kluwer, pp. 445-459.

Heit, H., 2005. Wozu Wissenschaft. Nietzsches Wissenschaftskritik als Radikalisierung Kants. In: B. Himmelmann, ed. 2005. Kant und Nietzsche in Widerstreit. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 47-56.

Heit, H., 2010. ‘Ein Problem mit Hörnern’ Nietzsche als Wissenschaftsphilosoph. In: H. Heit, G. Abel and M. Brusotti, eds. 2010. Nietzsches Wissenschaftsphilosophie. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 3-24.

Hoffmann, R., 2007. What Might Philosophy of Science Look like If Chemists Built It? Synthese, 155(3), pp. 321-336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-006-9118-9.

Kail, P. J. E., 2009. Nietzsche and Hume: Naturalism and Explanation. Journal of Nietzsche Studies, 37(1), pp. 5-22. https://doi.org/10.2307/20717956.

Kant, I., 1998. Critique of Pure Reason. Translated and edited by P. Guyer and A. Wood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kant, I., 2004. Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. Edited by M. Friedman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kant, I., 2012. Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens. In: Kant, I., 2012. Natural Science. Edited by E. Watkins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 182-308.

Keynes, J. M., 2010. Newton, The Man. In: J. M. Keynes, 2010. Essays in Biography. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 363-374. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-59074-2_35.

Kurth, R., 1956. Kants ‘Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels’ von 1755 und die moderne Wissenschaft. Mitteilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern, Neue Reihe, 13, pp. 58-80.

Lemanski, J., 2016. Galilei, Torricelli, Stahl. Zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte der Physik in der B-Vorrede zu Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Kant-Studien, 107(3), pp. 451-484. https://doi.org/10.1515/kant-2016-0034

Linden, S. J., 2003. The Alchemy Reader: From Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mahootian, F., 2013. Paneth’s Epistemology of Chemical Elements in light of Kant’s Opus postumum. Foundations of Chemistry, 15, pp. 171-184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10698-013-9182-4.

Martels, Z. v., 2000. Augurello’s Chrysopoeia (1515) — A Turning Point in the Literary Tradition of Alchemical Texts. Early Science and Medicine, 5(2), pp. 178-195. https://doi.org/10.1163/157338200X00173.

McIntyre, L., 2007. The Philosophy of Chemistry: Ten Years Later. Synthese, 155(3), pp. 291-292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-006-9114-0.

McNulty, M. B., 2014. Kant on Chemistry and the Application of Mathematics in Natural Science. Kant­ian Review, 19(3), pp. 393-418. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136941541400017X.

McNulty, M. B., 2016. Chemistry in Kant’s Opus Postumum. HOPOS: The Journal of the International Society for the History of Philosophy of Science, 6(1), pp. 64-95. https://doi.org/10.1086/685561.

Metzger, H., 1930. Newton, Stahl, Boerhaave et la doctrine chimique. Paris: F. Alcan.

Mittasch, A., 1952. Friedrich Nietzsche als Naturphilosoph. Stuttgart: Alfred Kröner.

Müller-Lauter, W., 1999. Nietzsche: His Philosophy of Contradictions and the Contradictions of His Philosophy [1971]. Translated by D.J. Parent, Foreword by R. Schacht. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Newman, W. R. and Principe, L. M., 2002. Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Nietzsche, F., 1962. Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks. Translated, with an Introduction by M. Cowan. Washington: Regnery Publishing.

Nietzsche, F., 1967. The Birth of Tragedy and the Case of Wagner. Translated by W. Kaufmann. New York: Random House, pp. 1-144.

Nietzsche, F., 1980a. Die fröhliche Wissenschaft. In: F. Nietzsche, 1980. Sämtliche Werke. Kritische Studienausgabe in 15 Einzelbänden. Edited by G. Colli and M. Montinari. Volume 3. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 343-652.

Nietzsche, F., 1980b. Die Geburt der Tragödie aus dem Geiste der Musik. In: F. Nietzsche, 1980. Sämtliche Werke. Kritische Studienausgabe in 15 Einzelbänden. Edited by G. Colli and M. Montinari. Volume 1. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 9-156.

Nietzsche, F., 1980c. Die Philosophie im tragischen Zeitalter der Griechen. In: F. Nietzsche, 1980. Sämtliche Werke. Edited by G. Colli and M. Montinari. Volume 1. Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 799-872.

Nietzsche, F., 1980d. Jenseits von Gut und Böse — Vorspiel einer Philosophie der Zukunft. In: F. Nietzsche, 1980. Sämtliche Werke. Kritische Studienausgabe in 15 Einzelbänden. Edited by G. Colli and M. Montinari. Volume 5. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 9-244.

Nietzsche, F., 1980e. Nachgelassene Fragmente. 19 = PI 20b. Sommer 1872 — Anfang 1873. In: F. Nietzsche, 1980. Sämtliche Werke. Edited by G. Colli and M. Montinari. Volume 7: Nachgelassene Fragmente 1869-1874. Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 419-521.

Nietzsche, F., 1980f. Nachgelassene Fragmente Anfang 1880 bis Sommer 1882. Teil 1. 3 = M II 1. Frühjahr 1880. Fragment 139 (3[78]). In: F. Nietzsche, 1980. Sämtliche Werke. Edited by G. Colli and M. Montinari. Volume 9: Nachgelassene Fragmente 1880-1882. Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 9-229.

Nietzsche, F., 1980g. Sokrates und die griechische Tragoedie. In: F. Nietzsche, 1980. Sämtliche Werke. Edited by G. Colli and M. Montinari. Volume 1. Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 603-640.

Nietzsche, F., 1995. Vorlesungsaufzeichnungen (WS 1871-72, WS 1874-75). In: F. Nietzsche, 1995. Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Abteilung II, Band 4. Edited by F. Bornmann and M. Carpitella. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Nye, M. J., 1994. From Chemical Philosophy to Theoretical Chemistry: Dynamics of Matter and Dynamics of Disciplines, 1800-1950. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Paneth, F. A., 1962. The Epistemological Status of the Chemical Concept of Element (I). The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 13(49), pp. 1-14.

Pecere, P., 2021. ‘Stahl Was Often Closer to the Truth’: Kant’s Second Thoughts on Animism, Monadology, and Hylozoism. HOPOS: The Journal of the International Society for the History of Philosophy of Science, 11(2), pp. 660-678. https://doi.org/10.1086/715879.

Penrose, R., 2017. Fashion, Faith, and Fantasy in the New Physics of the Universe. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Principe, L. M., 1998. The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Principe, L. M., 2008. Transmuting Chymistry into Chemistry: Eighteenth-Century Chrysopoeia and Its Repudiation. In: J. R. Bertomeu-Sánchez, D. T. Burns, B. Van Tiggelen, eds. 2008. Neighbours and Territories: The Evolving Identity of Chemistry. The 6th International Conference on the History of Chemistry: Proceedings. Louvain-la-Neuve: Mémosciences, pp. 21-34.

Principe, L. M., 2014. The End of Alchemy? The Repudiation and Persistence of Chrysopoeia at the Académie Royale des Sciences in the Eighteenth Century. Osiris, 29(1), pp. 96-116. https://doi.org/10.1086/678099.

Rayman, J., 2014. Nietzsche on Causation. The Journal of Speculative Philosophy, 28(3), pp. 327-334. https://doi.org/10.5325/jspecphil.28.3.0327.

Reill, P. H., 2005. Vitalizing Nature in the Enlightenment. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Rousseau, J. -J., 1999. Institutions chimiques. Texte revu par B. Bernardi et B. Bensaude-Vincent. Paris: Fayard.

Ruthenberg, K., 2009. Paneth, Kant, and the Philosophy of Chemistry. Foundations of Chemistry, 11(2), pp. 79-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10698-009-9064-y

Scerri, E., 2005. Some Aspects of the Metaphysics of Chemistry and the Nature of the Elements. Hyle. An International Journal for the Philosophy of Chemistry, 11(2), pp. 127-145. Available at: <https://www.hyle.org/journal/issues/11-2/scerri.pdf> (Accessed 23.08.2025).

Scerri, E. and McIntyre L., eds. 2015. Philosophy of Chemistry: Growth of a New Discipline. Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9364-3.

Schmid, H., 2019. Sur les extraterrestres: Théorie du ciel. Paris: Editions Manucius.

Schürmann, R., 2003. Broken Hegemonies. Translated by R. Lilly. Bloomington: Indiana.

Small, R., 2001. Nietzsche in Context. Aldershot: Ashgate.

Smets, A., 2008. The Controversy Between Leibniz and Stahl on the Theory of Chemistry. In: J. R. Bertomeu-Sánchez, D. T. Burns and B. Van Tiggelen, eds. 2008. Neighbours and Territories: The Evolving Identity of Chemistry. Louvain-la-Neuve: Mémosciences, pp. 291-306.

Smith, P.H., 1994. The Business of Alchemy: Science and Culture in the Holy Roman Empire. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Soddy, F., 1924. The Origins of the Conception of Isotopes. The Scientific Monthly, 17(4), pp. 305-317.

Stahl, G. E., 1747. Fundamenta chymiae, volume 3. Nürnberg: Wolfgang Moritz Endter, Erben & Julius Arnold Engelbrecht, Witwe.

Thielke, P., 2003. Hume, Kant, and the Sea of Illusion. Hume Studies, 29(1), pp. 63-88. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hms.2011.0150.

Valentine, B., 1678. His Triumphant Chariot of Antimony with Annotations of Theodore Kirkringus, M. D. With: The True Book of the learned Synesius, a Greek Abbot taken out the Emperor’s Library, concerning the Philosopher’s Stone. London: Printed for Dorman Newman at the Kings Arms in the Poultry.

Van Brakel, J., 2006. Kant’s Legacy for the Philosophy of Chemistry. In: E. Scerri, D. Baird and L. McIntyre, eds. 2006. Philosophy of Chemistry. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 69-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3261-7_4.

Wille, H., 2005. Kant über Außerirdische. Münster: Monsenstein & Vannerdat.

Windgätter, C., 2005. ‘Jetzt ergötze und erhole ich mich an der kältesten Vernunft-Kritik’. Kants transzendentale Frage und ihre Verwendung durch Nietzsche. In: B. Himmelmann, ed. 2005. Kant und Nietzsche in Widerstreit. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 78-90.

Yates, F. A., 1964. Giordano Bruno and Hermetic Tradition. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Yates, F. A., 1983. The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Zittel, C., 1995. Selbstaufhebungsfiguren bei Nietzsche. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann.

Zwart, H., 2019. Fabricated Truths and the Pathos of Proximity: What Would Be a Nietzschean Philosophy of Contemporary Technoscience? Foundations of Science, 24, pp. 457-482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10699-019-09599-3.