NONE20261022004538878Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal Universityno-reply@journals.kantiana.ruImmanuel Kant Baltic Federal UniversityKantian Journal0207-69182310-370110222026452«Я мыслю» и проблема трансцендентальной субъективностиV. V.RyabokonThe article examines the status of the apperceptive “I think” in Kant’s transcendental philosophy. The central issue is that the “I think”, on the one hand, functions as a condition of the possibility of cognition, while, on the other hand, it is not itself an object of self-knowledge. This leaves open the question of the sense in which the “I think” can nevertheless be understood positively. Accordingly, the aim of the study is to distinguish the different meanings of the “I think” in the Critique of Pure Reason and, on this basis, to outline the contours of a transcendental theory of subjectivity. The relation between the synthetic and analytical unities of apperception in the transcendental deduction of the categories is made clear together with the analysis of the logical sense of the subject in the “Paralogisms of Pure Reason”. Here the possibility of understanding transcendental self-consciousness as a pre-reflective self-relation is considered. It is argued that the logical I and the metaphysical subject, understood as a hypostatised logical I, are derivative of the original synthetic activity of self-consciousness. The transcendental “I think” is interpreted neither as an object of cognition nor as a substance, but as a non-objectifying form of self-relation that constitutes the perspectival structure of experience. It is concluded that the positive meaning of transcendental self-consciousness consists in a pre-reflective “consciousness” of synthetic activity: it expresses the self-relation inherent in the very structure of experience, by virtue of which every experience is given as mine (as belonging to me).1022202672910.5922/0207-6918-2026-2-1https://journals.kantiana.ru/eng/kant_collection/16138/98855/Carr, D., 1997. Kant’s Theory of Subjectivity. In: T. Rockmore and V. Zeman, eds. 1997. Transcendental Philosophy and Everyday Experience. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, pp. 96-110.Carr, D., 1999. The Paradox of Subjectivity: The Self in the Transcendental Tradition. N.Y.: Oxford University Press.Düsing, K., 1997. Selbstbewußtseinsmodelle: moderne Kritiken und systematische Entwürfe zur konkreten Subjektivität. München: Wilhelm Fink.Düsing, K., 2007. Kant’s Determination of the Pure “I Think”: A Program for a Theory of Subjectivity? In: V. S. Stepin and N. V. Motroshilova, eds. 2007. Immanuil Kant: nasledie i proekt [Immanuel Kant: Heritage and Project]. Moscow: Kanon+ ROOI Reabilitatsiya, pp. 51-64. (In Rus.)Evans, J. C., 1984. The Metaphysics of Transcendental Subjectivity: Descartes, Kant, and W. Sellars. Amsterdam: B.R. Grüner.Freitag, W. and Kraus, K., 2022. An Expressivist Interpretation of Kant’s “I Think”. Noûs, 56(1), pp. 110-132. https://doi.org/10.1111/nous.12350.Heidegger, M., 1997. Phenomenological Interpretation of Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason. Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.Heidegger, M., 2001. Being and Time. Oxford & Cambridge: Blackwell.Henrich, D., 1982. Fichte’s Original Insight. Translated by D. R. Lachterman. Contemporary German Philosophy, 1, pp. 15-53.Kant, I., 1998. Critique of Pure Reason. Translated and edited by P. Guyer and A. Wood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Kitcher, P., 2024. Practical and Empirical Cognition of the Cognitive Self. Estudos Kantianos, 12(1), pp. 11-26. https://doi.org/10.36311/2318-0501/2024.v12n1.p11.Kraus, K. T., 2020. Kant on Self-Knowledge and Self-Formation: The Nature of Inner Experience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Krouglov, A. N., 2005. Did Kant Have a Transcendental Subject? History of Philosophy Yearbook, 19 (2004), pp. 279-295. (In Rus.)Morfis, K. and Hatzimoysis, A., 2026. A Kantian Solution to the Problem of Reflection. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-026-10136-4.Paimann, R., 2002. Formale Strukturen der Subjektivität: Egologische Grundlagen des Systems der Transzendentalphilosophie bei Kant und Husserl. Hamburg: Felix Meiner.Rickert, H., 1904. Der Gegenstand der Erkenntnis: Einführung in die Transzendentalphilosophie. 2. Aufl. Tübingen & Leipzig: J. C. B. Mohr.Soboleva, M., 2024. Die Logik der transzendentalen Logik Kants. Hamburg: Felix Meiner.Zahavi, D., 2020. Self-Awareness and Alterity: A Phenomenological Investigation. Northwestern University Studies in Phenomenology & Existential Philosophy. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.О предложенном кантианском решении проблемы нетождественностиS.KahnAccording to K. Lindsey Chambers (2025), “if we start from within Kant’s moral framework, the non-identity problem doesn’t arise for morally responsive procreators”. However, Chambers is mistaken: the nonidentity problem is independent of whether we start from a Kantian or a consequentialist framework. Understanding this is important; otherwise, we run the risk of mistaking either the boundaries of normative ethics, the nature of the nonidentity problem, or both, with all that this entails. To explain this, this article is divided into three sections. First, I introduce the version of the nonidentity problem with which Chambers is primarily concerned, Teenaged Mother. Second, I introduce, and subsequently critique, Chambers’ explanation of how Kantian ethics obviates this problem. Third, I explain how Chambers’ account nonetheless can be applied to another philosophical issue of recent interest in reproductive ethics — namely, the ethics of prenatal injury.10222026304310.5922/0207-6918-2026-2-2https://journals.kantiana.ru/eng/kant_collection/16138/98856/Chambers, K. L., 2025. A Non-Solution to the Non-Identity Problem. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 28(5), pp. 677-690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10677-025-10503-1.Cohon, R., 2018. Hume’s Moral Philosophy. In: E. N. Zalta, ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 Edition). Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/hume-moral/ (accessed 1 October 2025).Flanigan, J., 2020. The Ethics of Prenatal Injury. Journal of Moral Philosophy, 18(1), pp. 1-23.Hume, D., 1960. A Treatise of Human Nature. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Kahn, S., 2024a. Prenatal Injury. Res Philosophica, 101(3), pp. 549-568.Kahn, S., 2024b. Problem-Based Ethics: A New Approach to the Application of Moral Theory. London: Rowman & Littlefield.Kahn, S., 2025. An Identity Crisis in Philosophy. Argumenta, pp. 1-14. https://doi.org/10.14275/2465-2334/20250.kah.Kahn, S., 2026. Has the Nonidentity Problem Been Dissolved? Philosophical Exchange, 1(1), pp. 12-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/29960126.2025.2545185.Kant, I., 1999. The Metaphysics of Morals. Part II. Metaphysical First Principles of the Doctrine of Virtue. In: I. Kant, 1999. Practical Philosophy. Translated by M. Gregor, edited by A. Wood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 507-603.Kant, I., 2011. Groundwork of a Metaphysics of Morals. Translated and edited by M. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Kingma, E., Woollard, F., 2025. Can You Do Harm to Your Fetus? Ethics, 135(2), pp. 290-319.Kleingeld, P., 2020. How to Use Someone ‘Merely as a Means’. Kantian Review, 25(3), pp. 389-414.Parfit, D., 1984. Reasons and Persons. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Дискуссия о проблеме принуждения: Г. Гуфеланд и И. КантP. V.StukovninaThe problem of coercion, raised as part of the theory of natural right in Germany in the late eighteenth century, is discussed with particular reference to the polemic between Gottlieb Hufeland and Immanuel Kant. In his Essay on the Principle of Natural Right (1785) and the first edition of the Principles of Natural Right and Related Sciences (1790) Hufeland derives right from the moral imperative, the duty to contribute to the perfection (Vollkommenheit) of all intelligent creatures. This is premised on the legitimacy of coercion as a means to achieve that goal. This approach is developed against the background of the tradition represented by Gottfried Achenwall and Ernst Ferdinand Klein with whose works Hufeland was familiar and whose positions he either criticised and called into question or used to bolster his own arguments. Achenwall’s teaching has a theological basis while Klein’s position gravitates toward Kantianism. Kant himself, though he does not openly criticise Hufeland’s natural law system which, in spite of its author’s professed adherence to Kantianism, contradicts the key Kantian ideas, takes a very different view of the problem of coercion. In the second edition of his textbook, The Principles of Natural Right (1795), Hufeland revises his concept to make noticeable changes to his grounding of natural law and the function of coercion, which attests to Kant’s influence on his position. The discussion between Hufeland and Kant, in turn, contributed to the shaping of Kant’s theory of right in the Metaphysics of Morals (1797).10222026446710.5922/0207-6918-2026-2-3https://journals.kantiana.ru/eng/kant_collection/16138/98858/Achenwall, G., 1761. Die Staatsklugheit nach ihren ersten Grundsätzen entworfen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck.Achenwall, G., 2020a. Natural Law. A Translation of the Textbook for Kant’s Lectures on Legal and Political Philosophy. Edited by P. Kleingeld, translated by C. Vermeulen, with an Introduction by P. Guyer. London: Bloomsbury Academic.Achenwall, G., 2020b. Prolegomena to Natural Law. Edited by P. Kleingeld. Translated by C. Vermeulen. Groningen: University of Groningen Press.Anonym, 1786a. Bey G. J. Göschen: Versuch über den Grundsatz des Naturrechts nebst einem Anhange von Gottlieb Hufeland der W. W. und b. R. D. 1785. Tübingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 19, pp. 148-152.Anonym, 1786b. Bey G. J. Göschen: Versuch über den Grundsatz des Naturrechts. Nebst einem Anhange. Von Gottlieb Hufeland der W.W. und b. R. D. 1785. Göttingische Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen, 1(18), pp. 169-172.Anonym, 1786c. Versuch über den Grundsatz des Naturrechts, nebst einem Anhange von Gottlieb Hufeland, d. W.W. u. b. R. D. Leipzig, bey G. J. Göschen. 1785. Bibliothek der neuesten Juristischen Litteratur (Leipzig), 1(319), p. 212.Anonym, 1787. Versuch über den Grundsatz des Naturrechts, nebst einem Anhange von Gottlieb Hufeland, d. W. W. u. b. R. D. Leipzig, bey Göschen. 1785. Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek (Berlin & Stettin), 71(2), pp. 403-407.Anonym, 1792. Lehrsätze des Naturrechts und der damit verbundenen Wissenschaften von Gottlieb Hufeland, d. W. W. u. R. D., und der letztern öffentlichen Lehrer auf der Universität zu Jena. 1790. Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung (Jena), 3(236), pp. 513-523.Anonym, 1794. Lehrsätze des Naturrechts und der damit verbundenen Wissenschaften von Gottlieb Hufeland, der Weltweisheit und Rechte Doctor, und der letztern öffentlichen Lehrer auf der Universität zu Jena. Jena, bey Cuno’s Erben. 1790. Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek (Kiel), 117(2), pp. 312-323.Anonym, 1795. Jena bey Cuno’s Erben: Lehrsätze des Naturrechts und der damit verbundenen Wissenschaften zu Vorlesungen von Gottlieb Hufeland, der W.W. und beider Rechte D., ordentlichen öffentlichen Prof. des Lehnrechts und ausserordentlichen Beysitzer der Juristenfacultät und des Schöppenstuhls auf der Universität zu Jena. Zweite gänzlich umgearbeitete Ausgabe. 1795. Annalen der Philosophie und des philosophischen Geistes (Halle), 1(116), pp. 922-931.Anonym, 1796. Lehrsätze des Naturrechts und der damit verbundenen Wissenschaften zu Vorlesungen von Gottlieb Hufeland, der W. W. und beider R. D. ordentl. öffentl. Lehrer des Lehnrechts u. s. w. zu Jena. Zweite gänzlich umgearbeitete Ausgabe. Jena 1795. Allgemeine juristische Bibliothek (Tübingen), 1, pp. 1-13.Anonym, 1797a. Königsberg, b. Nicolovius: Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre, von Immanuel Kant. 1797. Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung (Jena), 2(169), pp. 529-536.Anonym, 1797b. Königsberg, b. Nicolovius: Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre, von Immanuel Kant. ect. (Beschluss der im vorigen Stück abgebrochenen Recension). Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung (Jena), 2(170), pp. 537-544.Eisenhart, A. R., 1881. Hufeland, Gottlieb. Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliographie. Volume 13. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 297-298.Fiorillo, V., 2005. Das Modell des Pflichtenstaats im kantianischen Liberalismus vom Ernst Ferdinand Klein. Italien und Preußen: Dialog der Historiographie. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, pp. 45-74.Hinske, N., 1981. Einleitung. In: N. Hinske ed. 1981. Was ist Aufklärung? Beiträge aus der Berlinischen Monatsschrift. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, pp. XIII-LXIX.Hinske, N., 2000. Kants Beziehungen zu den Schaltstellen der Berliner Aufklärung. In: Immanuel Kant und die Berliner Aufklärung. Wiesbaden: Reichert, pp. 50-60.Hufeland, G., 1785. Versuch über den Grundsatz des Naturrechts nebst einem Anhange. Leipzig: Göschen.Hufeland, G., 1790. Lehrsätze des Naturrechts und der damit verbundenen Wissenschaften. Jena: Cuno’s Erben.Hufeland, G., 1795. Lehrsätze des Naturrechts und der damit verbundenen Wissenschaften zu Vorlesungen. 2. gänzlich umgearb. Ausg. Jena: Cuno’s Erben.Hufeland, G., 1922. Brief an I. Kant vom 11. Oktober 1785. In: Kant’s gesammelte Schriften. Volume 10. Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 412-413.Kant, I., 1991. The Metaphysics of Morals. Translated by M. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Kant, I., 1996a. Essay on the Principle of Natural Right — With an Appendix, by Gottlieb Hufeland, Doctor of Philosophy and Both Laws. Leipzig: G. J. Goschen, 1785. In: I. Kant, 1996. Practical Philosophy. Translated by A. Wood, edited by M. J. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 115-117.Kant, I., 1996b. On the Common Saying: That May Be Correct in Theory, but It Is of No Use in Practice. In: I. Kant, 1996. Practical Philosophy. Translated by A. Wood. Edited by M. J. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 273-310.Kant, I., 1998. Critique of Pure Reason. Edited and translated P. Guyer and A. Wood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Kant, I., 2016. Natural Right Course Lecture Notes by Feyerabend. In: I. Kant, 2016. Lectures and Drafts on Political Philosophy. Translated and edited by F. Rauscher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 81-180.Kant, I., 2024. Naturrecht Feyerabend. In: I. Kant, 2024. Naturrecht Feyerabend. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: frommann-holzboog, pp. 1-89.Klein, E. F., 1789. Schreiben an Herrn Professor Garve über die Zwangs- und Gewissens-Pflichten und den wesentlichen Unterschied des Wohlwollens und der Gerechtigkeit besonders bey der Regierung der Staaten. Berlin & Stettin: Nicolai.Klein, E. F., 1790. Freyheit und Eigenthum, abgehandelt in acht Gesprächen über der Beschlüsse der Französischen Nationalversammlung. Berlin & Stettin: Nicolai.Klein, E. F., 1797a. Grundsätze der natürlichen Rechtswissenschaften nebst einer Geschichte derselben. Halle: Hemmerde & Schwetschke.Klein, E. F., 1797b. Ueber den Grund der geselligen Pflichten. In: E. F. Klein, 1797. Kurze Aufsätze über verschiedene Gegenstände. Halle: Waisenhaus Buchhandlung, pp. 168-192.Klein, E. F., 1922. Brief an I. Kant vom 23. April 1789. In: Kant’s gesammelte Schriften. Bd. 11. Berlin: De Gruyter, p. 30.Kleingeld, P., 2020. Editor’s Introduction. In: G. Achenwall, 2020b. Prolegomena to Natural Law. Groningen: University of Groningen Press, pp. VII-XXII.Klippel, D., 1987. Politische Theorien im Deutschland des 18. Jahrhunderts. Aufklärung, Band 2. Hamburg: Felix Meiner, pp. 57-88.Klippel, D., 2000. Ideen zur Revision des Naturrechts: Die Diskussion zur Neubegründung des deutschen Naturrechts um 1780. Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik. Volume 8, pp. 73-90.Klippel, D., 2009. Das deutsche Naturrecht am Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts. In: V. Fiorillo and F. Grunert, eds. 2009. Das Naturrecht der Geselligkeit: Anthropologie, Recht und Politik im 18. Jahrhundert. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 301-326.Krouglov, A. N., 2025. Kant and Hegel: Natural Law or Philosophy of Right? Philosophy Jornal, 18(3), pp. 40-56. https://doi.org/10.21146/2072-0726-2025-18-3-40-56. (In Rus.)Kryshtop, L. E., 2016. Kant’s Lectures on Natural Law: Justice and Conscientiousness. Kantian Jornal, 35(4), pp. 63-72. https://dx.doi.org/10.5922/0207-6918-2016-4-5 (In Rus.)Kryshtop, L. E., 2024. Principles of Adjudication (diiudicatio) and Execution (executio) in Kant’s Practical Philosophy (Based on Feyerabend’s Natural Right and Lectures on Ethics). Kantian Jornal, 43(4), pp. 99-124. https://dx.doi.org/10.5922/0207-6918-2024-4-4. (In Rus.)Moggach, D., 2009. Freedom and Perfection: German Debates on the State in the Eighteenth Century. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 42(4), pp. 1003-1023.Pietsch, L. -H., 2012. Topik der Kritik. Die Auseinandersetzung um die Kantische Philosophie (1781—1788) und ihre Metaphern. Berlin: de Gruyter.Schmalz, T., 1792. Das reine Naturrecht. Königsberg: Nicolovius.Schröpfer, H., 2003. Kants Weg in die Öffentlichkeit: Christian Gottfried Schütz als Wegbereiter der kritischen Philosophie. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: frommann-holzboog.Schütz, Chr. G., 1922a. Brief an I. Kant vom 13. November 1785. In: Kant’s gesammelte Schriften. Volume 10. Berlin: De Gruyter, p. 422.Schütz, C. G., 1922b. Brief an I. Kant vom 20. September 1785. In: Kant’s gesammelte Schriften. Volume 10. Berlin: De Gruyter, p. 408.Stiening, G., 2021. Gott und der gerechte Krieg. Kants kritische Auseinandersetzung mit Achenwalls Ius naturae. In: D. Hüning, S. Klingner and G. Sadun Bordoni, eds. 2021. Auf dem Weg zur kritischen Rechtslehre? Naturrecht, Moralphilosophie und Eigentumstheorie in Kants «Naturrecht Feyerabend». Volume 4. Leiden: Brill, pp. 19-48.Wood, A., 2002. The Final Form of Kant’s Practical Philosophy. In: M. Timmons, ed. 2002. Kant’s Metaphysics of Morals: Interpretative Essays. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-22.«Последний» из республиканцев: политическая философия Канта в свете республиканизмаM. A.StepanovToday, with the growing popularity of republicanism, literature on the topic includes more and more works whose authors attempt to re-read classical political thinkers in terms of republican theory, so as to situate them within the republican canon. Some such efforts have been made with respect to Kant. Traditionally, his political philosophy is thought, more often than not, to be liberal. Republican authors break this consensus, representing him as a republican sympathiser. Some even regard him as a special figure in the history of republican thought. The reason for this is that in Kant’s time, republicanism was gradually leaving the historical stage, giving way to liberalism, to eventually be ousted and practically forgotten until the twentieth century. From this perspective, Kant comes across as one of the last republicans of his time. He is believed to have abandoned some significant republican ideas under the influence of competing politico-philosophical systems, such that he is thought to be a republican only up to a certain point. In this article, I challenge this view, demonstrating that Kant has more in common with republicanism than some researchers believe. To this end, I put his political philosophy in the context of what is known as Roman republicanism, one of the best-studied and currently most popular strands of republican thought. Its main elements are 1) freedom as non-domination, 2) supremacy of law, and 3) self-government. My analysis of Kant’s socio-political views from the perspective of these elements shows that, on the whole, they agree. I conclude that Kant should be viewed as a representative of the Roman branch of republicanism.10222026689210.5922/0207-6918-2026-2-4https://journals.kantiana.ru/eng/kant_collection/16138/98865/Arendt, H., 1982. Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Audier, S., 2015. Les théories de la république: nouvelle édition. Paris: La Découverte.Bielefeldt, H., 1997. Autonomy and Republicanism: Immanuel Kant’s Philosophy of Freedom. Political Theory, 25(4), pp. 524-558.Chaly, V. A., 2014. Kant between Liberalism and Conservatism. Kantian Journal, 4, pp. 54-60. https://doi.org/10.5922/0207-6918-2014-4-4. (In Rus.)Cicero, 1998. The Republic and The Laws. Translated by N. Rudd. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Demenchonok, E., 2019. Learning from Kant: On Freedom. Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia, 75, pp. 191-230. https://doi.org/10.17990/RPF/2019_75_1_0191.Forst, R., 2013. A Kantian Republican Conception of Justice as Nondomination. In: A. Niederberger and P. Schink, eds. 2013. Republican Democracy: Liberty, Law and Politics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 154-168.Gregory, M., 2023. Does the Kantian state Dominate? Freedom and Majoritarian Rule. Ratio, 36(2), pp. 124-136. https://doi.org/10.1111/rati.12366.Hobbes, T., 2012. Leviathan. In 3 Volumes. Volume 2: The English and Latin Texts. Edited by N. Malcolm. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Honohan, I., 2003. Civic Republicanism. London & New York: Routledge.Kant, I., 1991. The Metaphysics of Morals. Translated by M. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Kant, I., 1996a. An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment? In: I. Kant, 1996. Practical philosophy. Translated and edited by M. J. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 15-22.Kant, I., 1996b. Toward Perpetual Peace. A Philosophical Project (1795). In: I. Kant, 1996. Practical philosophy. Translated and edited by M. J. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 317-351.Kant, I., 1996с. On the Common Saying: That May Be Correct in Theory, But It Is of no Use in Practice (1793). In: I. Kant, 1996. Practical philosophy. Translated and edited by M. J. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 279-309.Kant, I., 1998. Critique of Pure Reason. Translated and edited by P. Guyer and A.W. Wood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Kant, I., 2007. Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Aim. In: I. Kant, 2007. Anthropology, History, and Education. Edited by G. Zöller and R. B. Louden ; translated by A. W. Wood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 107-120.Kant, I., 2009. Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason. Translated by W. S. Pluhar. Indianapolis & Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.Kharkhordin, O. V., 2021. Respublika. Polnaya versiya [The Republic. Full Version]. Saint-Petersburg: The European University at Saint-Petersburg Press. (In Rus.)Kleingeld, P., 2020. Me, My Will and I. Kant’s Republican Conception of Freedom of the Will and Freedom of the Agent. Studi Kantiani, 33, pp. 103-123. https://doi.org/10.19272/202002901008.Lovett, F. and Pettit, P., 2009. Neorepublicanism: A Normative and Institutional Research Program. Annual Review of Political Science, 12, pp. 11-29. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.12.040907.120952.Machiavelli, N., 1996. Discourses on Livy. Translated by H. C. Mansfield and N. Tarcov. Chicago: Chicago University Press.Maliks, R., 2014. Kant’s Politics in Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Nelson, E., 2004. The Greek Tradition in Republican Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Pettit, P., 1997. Republicanism. A Theory of Freedom and Government. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Pettit, P., 2013. Two Republican Traditions. In: A. Niederberger and P. Schink, eds. 2013. Republican Democracy: Liberty, Law and Politics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 169-204.Pocock, J. G. A. 2016. The Machiavellian Moment. Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press.Polybius, 2010. The Histories. Translated by R. Waterfield. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Ripstein, A., 2009. Force and Freedom: Kant’s Legal and Political Philosophy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Savidan, P., 2007. Le républicanisme de Kant. In: C. Berner and F. Capeillères, 2007. Kant et les kantismes dans la philosophie contemporaine: 1804—2004. Villeneuve d’Ascq: Presses universitaires du Septentrion, pp. 43-65.Skinner, Q., 1984. The Idea of Negative Liberty: Philosophical and Historical Perspectives. In: R. Rorty, J. B. Schneewind and Q. Skinner, eds. 1984. Philosophy in History. Essays on the Historiography of Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 193-221.Skinner, Q., 1998. Liberty before Liberalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Stepanov, M. A., 2025. Republicanism: The Practice of Conceptualization. Philosophy. Journal of the Higher School of Economics, 9(3), pp. 252-276. https://doi.org/10.17323/2587-8719-2025-3-252-276. (In Rus.)Unberath, H., 2008. Freedom in the Kantian State. Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik / Annual Review of Law and Ethics, 16, pp. 321-367.Viroli, M., 2002. Republicanism. New York: Hill and Wang.Westphal, K. R., 1993. Republicanism, Despotism, and Obedience to the State: The Inadequacy of Kant’s Division of Powers. Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik / Annual Review of Law and Ethics, 1, pp. 263-281.Философия химии Канта и космология Ницше. Часть II: Химия как наука, алхимия экономики и спиритуалистическое золотоB.BabichContinuing from Part One (see “Kantian Journal”, vol. 44, no. 3), this article reviews Kant’s dismissal of chemistry as a ‘proper’ science in light of his specific examples (instancing Stahl’s spagyric experiments, cinnabar, and gold) to argue that understanding Kant requires an historical hermeneutical approach to science. Close textual analysis of Kant’s writings is compared with an historically-informed reading of early modern chemistry and alchemy, which looks at Stahl, Boyle, Paneth, discussions by historians and philosophers of science, Goethe (in connection with his business enterprise), and, on a theological level, Reiner Schürmann, among others. A “material hermeneutics” of exemplary substances — cinnabar, in particular — in addition to Kant’s use of chemical examples, can illustrate gradations in science, the distinction between analysis and synthesis, and the conditions for possible experience, as well as the later reception of these themes in the philosophy of chemistry and the history of alchemy. The main findings show, first, that Kant’s treatment of chemistry is more complex than a simple exclusion from “proper science” suggests. Secondly, Kant’s example of cinnabar “now red, now black,” presupposes empirical instability. 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