RUSSOPHONE IMMIGRATION TO FINLAND: NEW FORMS, TRENDS, AND CONSEQUENCES

Until the 1960s, Finland was more often the country of origin than the country of destination. Once a depressed area, it soon turned into a welfare state, becoming with international migrants. Since Finland’s labour market and society are beset with demographic problems, the country gladly accepts labour migrants, particularly those from neighbouring states. Most EU immigrants coming to Finland are Estonians. Immigration from without the EU — from Russia and other former Soviet countries — has, however, an even greater potential. Non-EU immigration falls into several categories — from seasonal labour migration to the relocation of top specialists and entrepreneurs. Currently, family reunions, marriages, and student and labour migration account for most migration from Russia to Finland. This article attempts to study immigration to Finland from neighbouring countries, primarily from Russia. The result of the study is an analysis of principal channels of international migration to Finland. These are family reunion, student migration, top specialist relocation, and the expansion of Russian business. Finland is in dire need of healthcare specialists, researchers, business development and IT specialists, and other professionals. For example, Russia-bordering Finnish regions lack upper and middle-level healthcare specialists. The focus of the study is on the professional and socio-demographic structure of labour migration to Finland and the country’s migration policy on the adaptation and integration of Russian-speaking immigrants. The article gives a general picture of Finland’s migration policy on labour migration from Russia and other countries. In collecting and processing materials, data from official websites of Finland’s Migration Service and Employment Service, the database of Statistics Finland, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, and the Finnish National Agency for Education were used.


Introduction
Since the beginning of the 1990s, Russia's participation in world migration flows has been large-scale and diverse [1, p. 499-509]. Experts estimate the number of Russians who lived outside the CIS in the early 1990s at 20m. 1 Fin land has become one of the most popular countries for Russians to emigrate to. Educational and particularly labour emigration constitutes the main channels of relocation from Russia to Finland. Other popular reasons for emigration are marriage and family reunions. Many Russians visit the Nordic country to do shopping, find a job, purchase real estate, and apply to universities.
Russophone immigration has received considerable attention from Finn ish researchers. Anatoly Stikhin and Tatjana Rynkänen investigate the emi gration of Russianspeaking teachers, their role and participation in school education in Finnish border towns and villages, and the difference between the educational systems of Finland and Russia [2]. Tatiana TiaynenQadir writes about the priority of traditional family patterns in the life of Russian and Polish women in Finland and the connection between generations in their families [3]. Pirjo Pöllanen and Olga DavydovaMinguet focus on the everyday life of Russian immigrants in Finnish border regions, their life priorities, and the his tory of marriage immigration of Russianspeaking women [4]. Rolle Alho and Mika Helander explore the living and working conditions of seasonal migrants from neighbouring countries and the dependence of Finnish farms on seasonal workers [5]. Asteria Brylka, Tuuli Anna Mehonen, and Inga JasinskajaLahti assess the extent of Russianspeaking immigration and explore the growing ethnocultural diversity of the country, along with the attempts to find a balance between the preservation of identity and the integration of immigrants [6]. Inga JasinskajaLahti and Karmela Liebkind address the urgent issue of dis crimination against and psychological adaptation of adolescents with a Russian migration background and their commitment to traditional values and national identity [7]. Elina Eskelä examines the globalisation of higher education and the growing number of qualified international personnel in Finland [8]. Driss Habti looks at what encourages Russian doctors to emigrate to Finland [9]. Helga Eggebø and JanPaul Brekke consider the relationship between family migration and integration [10].
This article explores the issues raised by Finnish and Russian researchers. The intensive migration exchange between the countries, primarily in border regions, is a product of a long shared border, historical and sociocultural ties, and family contacts. Demographic problems common to most European coun tries and Russia compels Finland to count on immigrants. This study reveals how Russophone immigration affects the socioeconomic development of the country. To this end, it analyses the socalled 'Russianspeaking economy' and the emerging market for highly qualified Russophone specialists - two new phenomena in need of further investigation. This study aims to analyse the emigration to Finland of Russian citizens and Russian speakers from the for mer USSR and examine Finland's labour migration policy. The work combines statistical, comparative, and formalised analysis. In particular, we collect and process information, study and compare facts, and identify causal relationships between them. The contribution presents our findings from field research con ducted in Eastern Finland in Joensuu in December 2019.

Factors of immigration to Finland
Finland ranked first in the Good Country Index for several years - from 2017 to 2020. 2 The World Happiness Report names Finland the happiest country in the world with a score of 7.842. 3 The country also moved up the Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX). Today it is at the top of the rank ing of 52 countries. MIPEX assesses national migrant integration policies in eight areas: labour market mobility, family reunions, education, political participation, longterm residence, access to nationality, antidiscrimination, and health. 4 In Finland, like in most European countries, the birth rate is declining, the population is ageing, and qualified personnel is lacking. The natural replacement of the labour force is very unlikely, and attracting overseas workers seems the only way out [11, p. 472]. Finland welcomes young, educated, ambitious people, who can once become full citizens. Naturally, 'Russia and the EU are competing for labour resources from CIS countries' [12, p. 18].
Traditionally, Finns worked in agriculture. Finland did not immediately be come a country of destination after industrialisation in the second half of the 20th century. Its unattractiveness was a consequence of its peripheral position [13, p. 133-141]. The economic problems of the 1960s and 1970s led to mas sive labour emigration from Finland to Sweden, where the economy was grow ing and workers were in demand. Finland and its closest neighbour Sweden have a similar cultural and historical paradigm. This proximity played a part in the attractiveness of the country to Finnish migrants.
In the 21st century, Finland has become a postindustrial economy and a country of destination. Russia is Finland's principal partner in many areas. The countries are linked by a common history and share a long border. The states run a plethora of economic and cultural projects. Various immigration forms have developed between Russia and Finland, which is a major recruit er of migrant labour from the former USSR. The main channels for Russian citizens to emigrate to Finland are family reunions, including marriages, stu dent migration, and various types of labour migration (that of highly qualified personnel, business relocation, seasonal migration, etc.). Family reunions are the most common reason to move to Finland. Table 1 shows the number of ap plications submitted by citizens of different countries from 2015 to 2018 and in the first six months of 2019. The data are from the Ministry of the Interior and the Finnish Migration Service. It is apparent from the table that more than a third (37%) of Russian immigrants have moved to Finland to reunite with their families.  Table 2 shows the number of positive decisions on applications for family residence permits. Russians make up the main flow of migrants moving to Finland for family reasons. This trend is likely to continue in the years to come.

The structure of the immigrant flow to Finland
NonEU countries account for most immigrants coming to Finland, whilst the bulk of immigrants coming to Finland from the EU are Estonians. 5 There is a steady increase in the contribution of immigration to the Finnish population ( Figure 1). Immigration from Russia and other states of the former USSR, such as Ukraine, can significantly change the demographic situation in the country.
Employment areas suffering the most from a shortage of specialists are trans port and logistics, residential construction, welding, plumbing, metalworking, gardening and forestry, and cleaning. The demand for specialists in the service sector and IT has been steadily growing in recent years.
In 2019, 7,853 residence permits were issued to Russian citizens; 4,093, to Ukrainians; 300, to Belarusians. 6 Citizens of postSoviet republics such as Tajik istan (6), Kyrgyzstan (36), and Kazakhstan (196) also received Finnish residence permits, whilst only 8,533 EU citizens obtained ones during the period. Many migrants come to Finland for less than 90 days. Workers arrive in Fin land on a regular tourist visa, as no special permit is required for stays short 7 International Labour Organisation, 2020, II Ilostat, available at: https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/ (accessed 15. 05.2020). 8 Maahanmuuttovirasto Migratiosverket Finnish Immigration Service, 2020, available at: https://tilastot.migri.fi/index.html#applications?l=en&section=nationalities (accessed 20.10.2020). 9 Maahanmuuttovirasto Migratiosverket Finnish Immigration Service, 2020, available at: https://tilastot.migri.fi/index.html#decisions/21205?l=en&section=nationalities (accessed 20.10.2020). er than three months. Thus, it is problematic to keep statistics of visits that are not registered as migrant arrivals. There is strong demand for seasonal workers, mainly in gardening, forestry, and berry picking. Many seasonal workers come from Ukraine and Thailand. In 2019, most were citizens of Ukraine (817 people), Vietnam (91 people), Russia (65 people), and Belarus (35 people). 10 Educational migration to Finland is encouraged by the country's free highquality education. Finnish universities are amongst the best in the world, and Russophone immigrants value the opportunity to study at such institutions.
They see education as the perfect way to embrace Finnish social norms [15, p. 404]. In 2017, a new law introduced tuition fees for Englishlanguage master's programmes. This change concerned only nonEU citizens. Students from out side the Union have to pay from 8,000 to 16,000 euros a year for a master's programme. Russian citizens and Russophones comprise the largest group of in ternational students in Finland. Table 3 shows changes in the number of interna tional students at Finnish educational institutions. The data are from the Finnish National Agency for Education (EDUFI). An interview given by a Russian Karelian confirms many of the above trends.
I grew up in a small village near Petrozavodsk. My mother was a teacher at a local school. After graduating from the university in Petrozavodsk, I received a grant for a master's degree at the University of Joensuu. After completing the programme, I was offered a research position at the university. Today I teach Karelian at the University of Eastern Finland and work as a researcher. My decent command of Finnish helped me adjust to life in the country. I have friends, many of whom are from Russia. Do I want to go back? Probably, under certain conditions, yes. I really like my job. I'd like to cooperate with Russian universities.
Amid COVID19 restrictions, Finnish universities expected 2,300 exchange students to come to the country in winter term 2020. This number is about 36 per cent that of students who arrived a year ago. 11

Trends in emigration from Russia to Finland
In the first years after the collapse of the USSR, emigration from Russia was in essence repatriation of ethnic Finns (the Ingrian people). The Ingrian Finns settled on the territory of presentday St Petersburg in the 17th century and took part in building the city. Finland's repatriation law granted privileges to indige nous Finns. 12 The repatriation programme ended on 1 July 2016. In June 2016, at its very end, the Finnish Immigration Office received a record number of repatri ates' applications, 244, whilst only 61 were submitted in May 2016. Most ethnic repatriates come from Russia to Finland from the northwestern regions of the former, namely the Republic of Karelia, St Petersburg, and the Leningrad region. This skew is explained by the border position of the areas, linguistic proximity, similar mindset, and family and friendship ties. There are about 10,000 native speakers of the Karelian language in Finland; another 20,000 understand but do not speak it.
For comparison, about 25,000 residents of Karelia are native speakers of Karelian. 13 The language is on the curriculum of some schools and universities in Finland.
The annual growth in immigrants from Russia to Finland ranges from 1,500 to 2,700 people (Table 4). 11 Finnish National Agency For Education, 2020, Opetushallitus, available at: https://www. oph.fi/en/news/2020/higher-education-institutions-estimate-number-student-exchanges-au tumnsemesterbemuch (accessed 01.11.2020). 12 Those who lived in the area of St Petersburg before the foundation of Russia's northern capital, 2020, Bumaga, available at: https://paperpaper.ru/photos/ingriafacts/ (accessed 01.11.2020). 13 Karelian in Finland Eldia Case-Specific Report, 2020, University of Vienna Phaidra, avail able at: https://services.phaidra.univie.ac.at/api/object/o:471733/diss/Content/get (accessed: 13. 11.2020). Closer contacts between the two countries have encouraged Finnish eastern border municipalities, such as Joensuu, Lappeenranta, and Imatra, to introduce Russian language and literature lessons in schools. Particularly, ' [i] n 2013, the Finnish parliament supported establishing a foundation for the Russian language and culture. The organisation will award scholarships for studying the Russian language in Finland and allocate funds for advanced training of Russian teachers. The government has allocated 10m euros' [16]. Table 5 shows changes in the size of the Russianspeaking population in Fin land. Over 79,000 residents of Finland consider Russian their native language, which is 21 per cent of foreign language speakers in the country. About 145 pub lic organisations in Finland use Russian in their daytoday operations or are tar geted at the local Russianspeaking community. Yet another proof of the interest the Finnish state has in the Russian language and Russophone immigrants is that the 2013 State Prize of the Ministry of Culture and Education of Finland went to the Finnish Russian scholar Arto Mustajoki for a book about the Russian lan guage [17]. The Russian M., interviewed on 24 November 2019 at the University of East ern Finland (Joensuu), commented on many of the above aspects.
I moved because I wanted my children to have a good education and bright prospects. I have two kids. One of them is in a private school (it's free like public ones), the other is in kindergarten (the fee depends on the parents' income and ranges from 0 to 350 euros). Kindergarten is free for us. Our family is on the programme for immigrant integration. The first stage of integration is language courses, statefunded; my wife is taking one. She has a higher education and is registered with the employment service. How does an unemployed person receive an allowance (about 500 euros)? The courses are run by organisations that have won a tender. Five hour classes are held five days a week during one and a half semesters. A small cash allowance (about 200 euros) is paid to stimulate course attendance.
Immigration through marriage comprises a considerable proportion of the mi gration flow from Russia to Finland. Finnish men and women often marry Rus sians and citizens of other postSoviet countries (Table 6). There are many mixed marriages in border towns and settlements. 14 Russians enter into both traditional and samesex marriages in Finland. But the latter are so few (nine cases in ten years) that they will not be considered here because of their little effect on the overall picture of immigration through marriage.

Impact of immigration on the social and economic development of Finland
Immigration to Finland follows several routes. These are labour immigration, seasonal work, executive employment, business relocation, and immigration through marriage. Seasonal work, which is usual in agriculture and tourism, is done at specific times of the year. It is needed in crop harvesting, forestry, live stock farming, and related services. Hiring migrant labour is essential for busi nesses to make up for the shortage of workers. 'Although the foreign pickers are in a marginal position in the Finnish society and the Finnish welfare state, paradoxically they are of central importance as providers of labour to the berry and vegetable picking industry, which these days depends on nonnative sea sonal workers from Russia, Ukraine and Estonia' [5, p. 148-157]. Seasonal work includes ski resort jobs, shortterm employment by tour operators, booking services, guide services, and passenger water transport. People from neighbour ing countries partly fill these positions. In the near future, Finland will calibrate its migration policy to attract qualified specialists. New tools will encompass a grant system, academic mobility programmes, and longterm contracts. A special target group is entrepreneurs. Starting a business in Finland is not particular ly difficult, but one must prove that it is responsible and potentially profitable. Russianspeaking immigrants, who constitute Finland's largest nonnative com munity, own many small businesses in the country. Finland has a conducive en vironment for small businesses, and the regulatory framework is the same for all entrepreneurs. The path to small business ownership is open to everyone in the country, including nonnatives.
There are about 260,000 companies in Finland; 93 per cent of them are small firms employing one to nine people. Firms founded by foreigners or non-natives (approximately 6,500) account for 3 per cent of all Finnish enterprises.
According to Toivo Utso, a specialist at the Helsinki Enterprise Service (Yr itys Helsinki), young professionals are often willing to start their own business. He stresses that to do so, young immigrants should begin with studying the mar ket and the demand in it. The Finnish consumer will not necessarily seek after what sells well in Russia. Most nonnatives launch startups in commerce and services. Many immigrants purchase an existing business -a factory, a transport company, or commercial real estate. The number of such deals is rising. Russian businesspeople flock to Finland to live and work. Some, however, stay in Russia, running their Finnish businesses from afar. 15 Table 7 shows statistics of the Finn ish Migration Service on the number of entrepreneurs with Russian citizenship.   (Table 8). In 2019. about 73 per cent of Finns aged 15 to 64 had a job. This proportion is above the OECD average of 68 per cent. About 74 per cent of men and 72 per cent of women had a job in the country (Fig. 2). The immigrant employment rate is much lower. It was 45. Jobs for immigrants are at the core of the Finnish integration policy. In Octo ber 2006, the Finnish Ministry of Employment adopted a migration policy agenda that encourages labour migration to the country. At the same time, Finnish laws never mention the term 'labour migrants'. A principal organisation working with immigrants is the Employment Exchange (Työnvälitystoimisto), which deals with migrant recruitment. The Ministry of Employment provides information on jobs, work permits, and working conditions in Finland.

Integ of immigrants into Finnish society
Maria Pitukhina and Svetlana Sigova write that 'immigrant integration ef forts are targeted at education, professional and personal competencies in Finnish and Swedish, regular employment, healthcare, welfare, and struggle against dis crimination. The latter concerns the use of unskilled labour, job search problems, and the sense of national belonging'. [18, p. 35-38]. Russianspeakers are of ten better educated than members of other immigrant groups [2, p. 233-242]. The Russophones who moved to Finland with their parents at preschool age are wellintegrated into Finnish society. As a rule, they have few contacts with Rus sianspeaking peers, and their command of Russian is not perfect. Those who moved at school age think of themselves as bilinguals, yet their Russian is usually better than Finnish, and they may have difficulty communicating with their Finn ish peers. Both groups tend to have a dual identity. At home and in their ethnic environment, they stay in touch with Russian culture and the Russian language.
Interactions with Finnish culture occur outside the family: at school, through the media, and in communication with peers. Those who moved to the country at an older age feel they are part of the Russian community. They communicate with their compatriots and celebrate Russian holidays together. Their circle of acquaintances is rather limited and is not likely to grow. Finnish is crucial for education, work, and social mobility, and a poor command of the language sig nificantly reduces integration opportunities.
The Russian N., who moved to Finland (Joensuu) at preretirement age as part of the repatriation programme (her husband's grandmother was born in Finland), comes to similar conclusions in her interview taken in early December 2019.
Upon arrival in the country, I had to take integration courses. The language course was quite a challenge, probably because of my age. After that, I received my residence permit.
According to Finnish laws, I am not yet a pensioner (retirement in Finland is at 65, regardless of gender). I'm having huge problems with finding a job. Russians are reluctant to hire, and, of course, a local will have much greater chances of filling any job vacancy. My profession is not soughtafter in a small town. I am a primary school teacher. It's difficult for me to find friends amongst the locals because my Finnish is not great. We have different mindsets and perceive many things in different ways. We have no mutual acquaintance or friends. We don't' share memories. I mostly communicate with immigrants from Russia. We hold meetings in clubs where we celebrate holidays, birthdays, etc.
The best solution to the integration problems of the Russianspeaking popu lation of Finland is bilingual education. The FinnishRussian School, the Mylly puro Basic School in Helsinki, the Puolala School in Turku, the School of Eastern Finland in Imatra, Joensuu, and Lappeenranta offer programmes delivered in two languages [19, p. 46].
A Finnish language test is compulsory to acquire citizenship. However, it is not necessary for those who have obtained a secondary vocational education in the country. Many Russianspeaking immigrants choose the latter option, even when they have a degree from a Russian university.
Globalisation has blurred boundaries; this holds both for the movement of people and for national identities [20, p. 133]. 'Entirely new sociocultural con ditions have forced the "old" native Europeans to raise questions that previously seemed unnecessary or even inappropriate' [21, p. 179]. Russophons in Finland have many integration problems, one of which is finding one's identity. Davydo vaMinguet concludes: 'migration from postSoviet countries in the 2000s, grow ing cultural diversity of Finland, and shifts in public attitudes towards Russia (the subsiding fear of the "big neighbour") have made "Russianness" acceptable for immigrants as a cultural self-identification' [22, p. 26-39]. Olga Gurova stress es in her empirical research that Russianspeaking immigrants living in Finland build their ethnic identity by dressing in a particular way and using the socalled 'style repertoires' [23, p. 17-41].
The key to integration is the knowledge of Finnish. A poor command of the language complicates integration, along with discrimination (often latent) in the labour market and the uneasy attitude of the locals to Russians preserving their identity. In 1999, Finland adopted the Act on the Integration of Immigrants and Reception of Asylum Seekers (See: Act on the Integration of Immigrants and Reception of Asylum Seekers). 17 In 2005, the growing number of immigrants necessitated significant amendments.
In 2011, the Act on Integration (KotoL) entered into force. Its primary aim is intersectoral cooperation for integration. The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment is responsible for immigrant integration and employment. The Min ister of Integration is the Minister of Employment, Tula Haatainen.
Priorities of the country's integration policy: a. support for immigrant families; b. jobs and housing for immigrants; c. civil society participation in immigrant integration; d. cooperation between the state and municipalities.
In 2019, the Ministry of the Interior of Finland even started to accept applica tions from organisations and individuals to take part in the Immigrant Integration Program of the Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund (AMIF). Overall, the Ministry planned to receive 18 about 4m euros, of which about 1m (966,418 euros) was to be spent on an immigrant integration programme. 19 The AMIF was established for 2014-2020, totalling 3.137bn euros. Its pri ority initiatives are: -fight against irregular migration; -strengthening solidarity at all levels with EU countries affected by migrant crises; -supporting regular migration to EU states in accordance with market needs and promoting the integration of nonEU citizens.
Integration policy facilitates the involvement of immigrants in all areas of society. Equal opportunities for all and a welcoming atmosphere that motivate immigrants to become full-fledged members of Finnish society are crucial for immigrant integration.
Young immigrants arriving in Finland need support at the early stages of integration. Not having enough resources, the authorities look for new creative 17 Act on the Integration of Immigrants and Reception of Asylum Seekers (493/1999; amend ments up to 324/2009 included), 2009, Legislationline, available at: https://www.legislation line.org/download/id/6235/file/Finland_act_on_integration_of_immigrants_1999%20as%20 of% 202009%20ENG.pdf (accessed 15.10.2020). 18 Potential beneficiaries of programmes supported by the fund are national authorities, local government bodies, nongovernmental and humanitarian organisations, private and public law firms, and educational and research organisations. 19 Kotouttaminen.fi, 2020, available at: https://kotouttaminen.fi/artikkeli/-/asset_publisher/ amifhakukaynnistyymarraskuussarahoituksestanoinmiljoonaeuroakotoutumistoimiin (accessed 30.10.2020). solutions to enhance integration. One of them was the Guider mobile game. 20 The game focuses on housing, work, healthcare, money, education, society, and cul ture. Immigrants can find answers to their questions while playing. The app provides general and specific information by teaching the rules and introducing the player to Finnish laws and political organisation. It has Finnish, Russian, Ar abic, English, Somali, and Kurdish versions. The game is an effective language learning aid.
Finland's integration policy has become more active and efficient. Many im migrants who moved to the country some time ago believe that if such conditions for integration had existed earlier, their adaptation would have been faster and they would have avoided many problems when integrating into a new society.

Conclusion
With the growth of immigration in Finland, the country was forced to 'make some changes to its migration policy' [24, p. 136]. In securitising their migration policy, the Finns embraced the principle of selective migration. They welcome skilled labour, including that from outside the EU. The securitisation of migration policy is a necessary condition for 'maintaining an optimal level of security in the recipient country' [25, p. 38-42]. Amongst other things, this means safeguard ing national security interests when recruiting labour migrants.
Seventy-five thousand Russian speakers live in Finland, and their number is increasing every year. The Russophone population of Finland is quite diverse: there are asylum seekers, returnees, labour migrants, students, and family mem bers seeking reunion. Yet the chief motive for immigration, along with family reasons, is economic. Dezhina et al. confirm this conclusion: '… for the countries with catching up development patterns, for instance, Russia, economic factors, including salary, are a major motive for emigration" [26, p. 119].
The Russianspeaking population of Finland usually has a good education. Their employment rate is close to that of the locals. Nevertheless, they earn less than the Finns, despite a comparable quality of life [27]. Still, 'Russophones living in Finland often fall victims to prejudices and everyday discrimination…' [28].
Finland is interested in an influx of labour migrants, especially those from bordering countries and regions: their decent education, acquaintance with the traditions of Finnish society and, most importantly, their desire to adapt reduces integration costs. The country's migration policy aims to create favourable condi tions for immigrant integration. It engages the mechanisms of civil society, whilst the state is set to take important decisions.